Bibliographic Essay

This report relies on numerous primary and secondary published sources, testimony from Task Force roundtables, and personal communications with independent experts and government officials for data and ideas. These sources are described in the following bibliographic essay, which is organized and labeled by section of the report. (Transcripts of the three roundtables have been published by, and are available from, American Reporters. Their telephone is 800-929-0130).

INTRODUCTION

SCOPE OF THE ISSUES
The I = PAT formulation is described by Paul Ehrlich and Anne Ehrlich in Population Explosion (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990), pp. 58-59. Per capita and total energy consumption figures for 1980 and 1993 are from U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1994 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1994), pp. 584-85. Total and per capita resource use, including paper and plastic, between 1970 and 1989 is taken from "Natural Resource Consumption," World Resources 1994-1995 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 15, in consultation with one of the authors, Alan Hammond. discussion of the POET and PISTOL models, see K.D. Bailey, "From POET to PISTOL: Reflections on the Ecological Complex," Sociological Inquiry, Vol. 60, 1990, pp.386-94.

The points on cropland erosion, groundwater, and fisheries are drawn from the Population and Consumption Scoping Task Force, Preliminary Report (in memorandum form) dated 1 April 1994, p.6, which in turn drew on National Research Council, Alternative Agriculture (Washington, D.C., 1989) and World Resources Institute, World Resources 1994-1995 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). Figures on wetlands, old-growth forests, tallgrass prairie, and species are from New Road Map Foundation, All-Consuming Passion: Waking Up from the American Dream (Seattle, Washington, 1993), which in turn drew on World Resources Institute, The 1993 Information Please Environmental Almanac (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1993). That the United States is the top producer of garbage, the leading generator of toxic and hazardous substances, the world's largest economy, the world's largest single consumer of natural resources, and the greatest producer of wastes of all kinds is drawn from the Population and Consumption Scoping Task Force, Preliminary Report (in memorandum form) dated 1 April 1994.

The natural increase figure derived from total births and total deaths is from Population Reference Bureau (PRB), "Population Update," Population Today, June 1995, p. 6. Average family size is from PRB World Population Data Sheet 1995. Extent of unintended pregnancies and births from testimony of Jacqueline Forrest, Research and Planning Division, Alan Guttmacher Institute, 27 October 1994 Task Force roundtable. Data on unintended pregnancies is also available in Jacqueline Forrest, "Epidemiology of Unintended Pregnancy and Contraceptive Use," American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, May 1994, pp. 1485-89, and Alan Guttmacher Institute, "Women and Reproductive Health in the United States," Facts in Brief (New York, 1994).

The escalator image is borrowed from Paul Harrison, The Third Revolution: Environment, Population, and a Sustainable World (London: I.B. Tauris & Co., 1992). The necessity to work on both population and consumption in the United States to reduce environmental impacts, because of time scales and the limitations of demographic change, is based on Judith Jacobsen, "Population, Consumption, and Environmental Degradation: Problems and Solutions," Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy, Summer 1995.

POPULATION

DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS
That the United States is the only major industrialized country in the world experiencing population growth on a significant scale; that the United States is the third largest country in the world; U.S. and European natural increase rates; and annual population contributions larger than that of the United States are all drawn from Population Reference Bureau, World Population Data Sheet 1995. Absolute natural increase is drawn from Population Reference Bureau, "Population Update," Population Today, June 1995, p. 6. Net migration is from testimony of Susan Martin, Director, U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform, 27 October 1994 Task Force roundtable. Connecticut and California populations are derived from Susan Weber, ed., USA by Numbers: A Statistical Portrait of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Zero Population Growth, 1988), pp. 16-17.

Historical immigration levels are from Philip Martin and Elizabeth Midgley, "Immigration to the United States: Journey to an Uncertain Destination," Population Bulletin, September 1994, p. 23. Historical fertility is from U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1994 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1994), p. 78. Total fertility in Ireland, Iceland, Malta, and the United States in 1995 is from Population Reference Bureau, World Population Data Sheet 1995.

U.S. Census Bureau Projections are drawn from testimony of Jennifer Day, Demographer and Statistician, U.S. Bureau of the Census, 27 October, 1994 Task Force roundtable.

Economic consequences of slow population growth are drawn from Geoffrey McNicoll, "Economic Growth with Below-Replacement Fertility," Below-Replacement Fertility in Industrial Societies: Causes, Consequences, Policies: A Supplement to VoL 12 of Population and Development Review, 1986, pp. 217-38.

Quotations from the Rockefeller Commission Report are taken from National Audubon Society, Population and the American Future Twenty Years Later: Revisiting the Rockefeller Commission Report (Boulder, Colorado: Human Population and Resource Use Department, 1994), pp. 27 and 31.

Arguments regarding aging of populations with low fertility are drawn from Carolyn Weaver, "Social Security in Aging Societies," and "Comment: Thomas Gale Moore," Below-Replacement Fertility in Industrial Societies: Causes, Consequences, Policies: A Supplement to Vol. 12 of Population and Development Review, 1986, pp. 273-94 and 295.

Data on polls is from Maryla Webb and Judith Jacobsen, Carrying Capacity: An Introduction (Washington, D.C.: Carrying Capacity, Inc., 1982), pp. 61-62..

FINDINGS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
Fertility
Fertility Rate
Historical fertility figures are from U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1994 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1994), p. 78. Current fertility is from Population Reference Bureau, World Population Data Sheet 1995. Number of pregnancies in 1992 and percentage of pregnancies unintended are from Alan Guttmacher Institute, "Women and Reproductive Health in the United States," Facts in Brief (New York, 1994). Definitions of "mistimed" and "unwanted" are from testimony of Jacqueline Forrest, Research and Planning Division, Alan Guttmacher Institute, 27 October 1994 Task Force roundtable.

Low birthweight and infant mortality figures are drawn from National Family Planning and Reproductive Health Association, "Facts About the National Family Planning Program," (Washington, D.C, undated). Unintended pregnancies that end in abortion is from Alan Guttmacher Institute, "Women and Reproductive Health in the United States," Facts in Brief (New York, 1994).

Pregnancies
Incidence of unintended pregnancies by income and age is from testimony of Jacqueline Forrest, Research and Planning Division, Alan Guttmacher Institute, 27 October 1994 roundtable. Percentage of teen pregnancies unintended is from Alan Guttmacher Institute, "Women and Reproductive Health in the United States," Facts in Brief (New York, 1994). Unintended pregnancies among women over 40 are from personal communication with Felicia Stewart, M.D., Deputy Assistant Secretary for Population Affairs, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 14 June 1995. Percentage of unintended pregnancies among women in poverty is from Patricia Donovan, The Politics of Blame: Family Planning, Abortion, and the Poor (New York, 1995), p. 20.

Births
Number of births in U.S. is from Alan Guttmacher Institute, "Women and Reproductive Health in the United States," Facts in Brief (New York, 1994) and Population Reference Bureau, "Population Update," Population Today, June 1995, p. 6. Percentage of births that are mistimed and unwanted and recent trends are from testimony by Jacqueline Forrest, Research and Planning Division, Alan Guttmacher Institute, 27 October 1994 Task Force roundtable. New welfare recipients figure is from Patricia Donovan, The Politics of Blame: Family Planning, Abortion, and the Poor (New York, 1995), p. 9. Teens and welfare figure is from National Family Planning and Reproductive Health Association, "Facts About the National Family Planning Program," (Washington, D.C., undated).

Incidence of unintended births by age and income is from testimony of Jacqueline Forrest, Research and Planning Division, Alan Guttmacher Institute, 27 October 1994 Task Force Roundtable.

The demographic impact of eliminating unwanted births is a calculation by the Task Force. Qualitative demographic impact of delaying mistimed births is from personal communication with Stanley Henshaw, Alan Guttmacher Institute, New York, 6 June 1995.

Contraceptive Services
Contraceptive failure by age, income, and marital status and comparison between U.S. and European failure rates is from testimony of Jacqueline Forrest, Research and Planning Division, Alan Guttmacher Institute, 27 October 1994 Task Force Roundtable.

The paragraph on the number of sexually active, contracepting, and at risk American women of reproductive age is derived from a number of sources. Total American women of reproductive age, the number sexually experienced, the number not at risk of unintended pregnancy (including the number of women that rely on sterilization), and the number at risk, are drawn from Stanley Henshaw and Jacqueline Forrest, Women at Risk of Unintended Pregnancy, 1990 Estimates: The Need for Family Planning Services, Each State and County (New York: The Alan Guttmacher Institute, 1993) and L.S. Peterson, "Contraceptive Use in the United States: 1982-1990," Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics, No. 260 (Washington, D.C.: National Center for Health Statistics, 1995), in consultation with Barbara Cohen, Office of Population, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The four to five million figure (women who are at risk of an unintended pregnancy yet do not use contraception) is derived from the figure of women at risk of unintended pregnancy not including those who rely on contraceptive sterilization (30.5 million), women relying on contraceptive sterilization (14.6 million), and a figure presented in testimony by Jacqueline Forrest, Research and Planning Division, Alan Guttmacher Institute, at the 27 October 1994 Task Force roundtable: that 90 percent of all women at risk of an unintended pregnancy (including women who rely on contraceptive sterilization-a definition different from the one used in the text) rely on contraception of some kind. The 90 percent figure is also found in the Alan Guttmacher Institute, "Women and Reproductive Health in the United States," Facts in Brief (New York, 1994), p. 1. The percentage of unintended pregnancies that occur to women who do, and do not, use contraception is from testimony of Jacqueline Forrest, Research and Planning Division, Alan Guttmacher Institute, 27 October 1994 Task Force Roundtable.

The number of women in need of subsidized family planning and reproductive health care is from personal communication with Felicia Stewart, M.D., Deputy Assistant Secretary for Population Affairs, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 14 June 1995. Percentages of low-income women and sexually active teenagers who do not receive medically-supervised contraceptive care is from testimony of Jule Hallerdin, Director of Medical Affairs, Planned Parenthood Federation of America, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable.

Title X
Information on Title X-services it provides; number of clinics receiving support; total funding in 1995; profile of clients; percent of eligible people served; pregnancies and abortions avoided; and costs compared with childbirth-is from National Family Planning and Reproductive Health Association, "Facts About the National Family Planning Program" (Washington, D.C., undated). Cost-effectiveness of publicly-funded family planning is from Patricia Donovan, The Politics of Blame: Family Planning, Abortion, and the Poor (New York: The Alan Guttmacher Institute, 1995), p. 5. Information on other public sources of funding for family planning services from Rachel Gold and Daniel Daley, "Public Funding of Contraceptive, Sterilization, and Abortion Services, Fiscal Year 1990," Family Planning Perspectives, September/October 1991, pp. 204- 11. Medicaid coverage of abortions is from Patricia Donovan, The Politics of Blame: Family Planning, Abortion, and the Poor (New York: The Alan Guttmacher Institute, 1995), p. 34.

Medicaid
Expansion of Medicaid coverage is from testimony of Judith Desamo, Executive Director, National Family Planning and Reproductive Health Association, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable, and Rachel Gold and Daniel Daley, "Public Funding of Contraceptive, Sterilization, and Abortion Services, Fiscal Year 1990," Family Planning Perspectives, September/October 1991, pp. 204-11.

Private Insurance
Information on private insurance coverage of family planning services is from testimony of Judith Desamo, Executive Director, National Family Planning and Reproductive Health Association, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable.
Related Strategies
Data on contraceptive research is from Carl Djerassi, "The Bitter Pill," Science, 28 July, 1989, pp. 356-61 and testimony of Jule Hallerdin, Director of Medical Affairs, Planned Parenthood Federation of America, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable.

Emergency Contraception
Information on emergency contraception is from testimony of Judith Desamo, Executive Director, National Family Planning and Reproductive Health Association, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable.

The Role of Men
Male participation issues is drawn from testimony of Jule Hallerdin, Director of Medical Affairs, Planned Parenthood Federation of America, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable.

Contraceptive Failure
Points about American attitudes toward sex, sexuality, and contraception are drawn from testimony of Jacqueline Forrest, Research and Planning Division, Alan Guttmacher Institute, 27 October 1994 Task Force Roundtable, and testimony of Jule Hallerdin, Director of Medical Affairs, Planned Parenthood Federation of America, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable; numbers on sex education are from Hallerdin's testimony. Point on media is from testimony of Margaret Pruitt Clarke, President, Advocates for Youth, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable.

Financial Incentives Analysis of financial incentives is based in part on Judith Jacobsen, "Promoting Population Stabilization: Incentives for Small Families," Worldwatch Paper 54 (Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute, 1983).

Fighting Poverty
Information on economic opportunity for teens is from testimony of Margaret Pruitt Clarke, President, Advocates for Youth, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable.

Adolescent Fertility
The entire section on adolescent fertility-including the causes of adolescent pregnancy, requirements of programs, age differences between pregnant teens and their sexual partners, and successful programs around the country-draws heavily on the testimony of Margaret Pruitt Clarke, President, Advocates for Youth, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable. The section also relied on the following sources.

Data on teen pregnancy and childbearing are from the Alan Guttmacher Institute, "Women and Reproductive Health in the United States," Facts in Brief (New York, 1994). Incidence of teen pregnancy by income is drawn from testimony of Jacqueline Forrest, Research and Planning Division, Alan Guttmacher Institute, 27 October 1994 Task Force Roundtable. Age differences between pregnant teen girls and their partners are from testimony of Jule Hallerdin, Director of Medical Affairs, Planned Parenthood Federation of America, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable. Age at first sexual activity is from the Alan Guttmacher Institute, Sex and America's Teenagers (Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 20.

Women, PoveHy, and Opportunity
Numbers on women in poverty are from Patricia Donovan, The Politics of Blame: Family Planning, Abortion, and the Poor (New York: The Alan Guttmacher Institute, 1995), p. 9. Figures on employment and education are from testimony of Jule Hallerdin, Director of Medical Affairs, Planned Parenthood Federation of America, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable.

Immigration
Native American population is from personal communication with Public Information Office of the U.S. Bureau of the Census, 6 June 1995. "Four waves" of immigration is from testimony of Susan Martin, Director of U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform, 27 October 1994 Task Force Roundtable, and Philip Martin and Elizabeth Midgley, "Immigration to the United States: Journey to an Uncertain Destination," Population Bulletin, September 1994, pp. 21-23.

Principles of immigration law in history are from U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration, U.S. National Report to the International Conference on Population and Development (Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 30. Laws of 1986 and 1990 are from Philip Martin and Elizabeth Midgley, "Immigration to the United States: Journey to an Uncertain Destination," Population Bulletin, September 1994, pp. 12-14. Immigration numbers for 1994 are from testimony of Susan Martin, Director of U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform, 27 October 1994 Task Force Roundtable, and Philip Martin and Elizabeth Midgley, "Immigration to the United States: Journey to an Uncertain Destination," Population Bulletin, September 1994, p. 4. Approach of the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform and needed research is from testimony of Susan Martin, Director of U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform, 27 October 1994 Task Force Roundtable; testimony of Ellen Percy Kraly, Department of Geography, Colgate University, 27 October 1994 Task Force Roundtable; and testimony of Michael Teitelbaum, Vice Chair, U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable.

Population Distribution
State population densities are from Susan Weber, ed., USA by Numbers: A Statistical Portrait of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Zero Population Growth, 1988), p. 24. All other data in this section from U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration, U.S. National Report to the International Conference on Population and Development (Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 5, and Population and Consumption Scoping Task Force, Preliminary Report (in memorandum form) dated 1 April 1994, pp. 1-2. References to local growth are based on special issue of High Country News, "Grappling with Growth," 5 September 1994.

CONSUMPTION

The U.S. role in resource consumption and waste production is drawn from the Population and Consumption Scoping Task Force, Preliminary Report (in memorandum form) dated 1 April 1994. Raw materials use and population growth 1900-1989 is from John Young and Aaron Sachs, "The Next Efficiency Revolution: Creating a Sustainable Materials Economy," Worldwatch Paper #121 (Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute, 1994), p. 14.

That 4.5 billion tons of materials were used in 1989 is drawn from World Resources Institute, "Natural Resource Consumption," World Resources 1994-1995 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 15. Figures on crude materials handled; materials wasted and dissipated into the environment; and the amount of postconsumer waste is from testimony of Robert Repetto, World Resources Institute, 11 January 1995 Task Force Roundtable.

U.S. municipal waste as highest in the world is from Robert Repetto, Roger Dower, Robin Jenkins, and Jacqueline Geoghegan, Green Fees: How a Tax Shift Can Work for the Environment and the Economy (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1992), p. 15. Greenhouse gas emissions drawn from World Resources Institute, "Natural Resource Consumption," World Resources 1994-1995 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 17 and 201. Toxic waste is from the Population and Consumption Scoping Task Force, Preliminary Report (in memorandum form) dated 1 April 1994.

Ratio of U.S. natural resource use per capita to world average in 1990 and per capita; percentage of mineral and metal commodities produced domestically; and total resource use, including of paper and plastic, are drawn from World Resources Institute, "Natural Resource Consumption," World Resources 1994-1995 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 15-16.

Personal goods and services consumption rising by 45 percent and Index of Social Health is drawn from New Road Map Foundation, All-Consuming Passion: Waking Up from the American Dream (Seattle, Washington, 1993).

The section on de-coupling prosperity from resource use and increasing the prices of natural resources relied on World Resources Institute, "Natural Resource Consumption," World Resources 1994-1995 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 23-24; Emst Ulrich von Weizsacker, "How to Achieve Progress Towards Sustainability," Symposium: Sustainable Consumption, report of symposium held 19-20 January 1994, in Oslo, Norway, pp. 50-59; Sandra Postel and Christopher Flavin, "Reshaping the Global Economy," State of the World (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991), pp. 170-188; and testimony of Robert Repetto, World Resources Institute, 11 January 1995 Task Force roundtable. The quotation that prices should tell "the ecological truth" is drawn from Ernst Ulrich von Weizsacker, "How to Achieve Progress Towards Sustainability," Symposium: Sustainable Consumption, report of symposium held 19-20 January 1994, in Oslo, Norway, p. 58.

The discussion of market-based economic instruments for environmental policy and of a "tax shift" relied on Joanne Freund Lesher, "Pursuing Ecological Tax Reform in the United States," (mimeographed report) January 1995; Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Taxation and the Environment: Complementary Policies (Paris, 1994); Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Managing the Environment: The Role of Economic Instruments (Paris, 1994); David Pearce, "Sustainable Consumption Through Economic Instruments," Symposium: Sustainable Consumption, report on a symposium held 19- 20 January 1994, in Oslo, Norway, pp. 84-90; and Robert Stavins and Bradley Whitehead, "Dealing with Pollution: Market-Based Incentives for Environmental Protection," Environment, September 1992, pp. 7-11, and 29-41; Robert Repetto, Roger Dower, Robin Jenkins, and Jacqueline Geoghegan, Green Fees: How a Tax Shift Can Work for the Environment and the Economy (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1992); and on testimony of Roger Dower, World Resources Institute, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable.

The role of savings in the economy and in technological innovation and the U.S. savings rate is from testimony of Roger Dower, World Resources Institute, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable.

FINDINGS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
Economic Policy Instruments
Total and per capita U.S. energy consumption during the 1970s and early 1980s is drawn from U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1994 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1994), pp. 584-85. Rise in average fuel economy, per capita energy consumption, and total energy use in the transportation sector are from Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Use and Carbon Emissions: Some International Comparisons (Washington, D.C., 1994), pp. 37, 39, and 40.

Existing provisions are drawn from Joanne Freund Lesher, "Pursuing Ecological Tax Reform in the United States," (mimeographed report) January 1995; Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Taxation and the Environment: Complementary Policies (Paris, 1994); Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Managing the Environment: The Role of Economic Instruments (Paris, 1994); and Robert Repetto, Roger Dower, Robin Jenkins, and Jacqueline Geoghegan, Green Fees: How a Tax Shift Can Work for the Environment and the Economy (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1992).

Composition of federal tax receipts in 1991 and benefits of a tax shift is drawn from Robert Repetto, Roger Dower, Robin Jenkins, and Jacqueline Geoghegan, Green Fees: How a Tax Shift Can Work for the Environment and the Economy (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1992), pp. 3-12; and testimony of Roger Dower, World Resources Institute, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable. Rationality, equity, and other requirements of a tax, and need for empirical analyses and proper choice of baseline is based on Joanne Freund Lesher, "Pursuing Ecological Tax Reform in the United States," (mimeographed report) January 1995. Point about tribal dependence on payroll taxes is drawn from comment of Theodore Strong, Executive Director, Columbia River Inter- Tribal Fish Commission and Member of President's Council on Sustainable Development and of the Population and Consumption Task Force at 27 April 1995 PCSD meeting in San Francisco, California.

Educating Consumers
ICR Poll reported in Greenwire in late April 1995. Merck Family Fund poll results are from personal communication with Betsy Taylor, Executive Director of Merck Family Fund, 19 June 1995.

Twenty percent reduction in expenditures is reported in testimony by Vicki Robin, New Road Map Foundation, 11 January 1995 Task Force roundtable and in Joe Dominguez and Vicki Robin, Your Money or Your Life: Transforming Your Relationship With money and achieving Financial Independence (New York: Penguin Books, 1992), p. 154. Global Action Plan for the Earth program results reported in testimony by David Gershon, President, Global Action Plan, 11 January 1995 Task Force Roundtable. The program itself is described in David Gershon and Robert Gilman, Household Ecoteam Workbook: A Six-Month Program to Bring Your Household into Environmental Balance (Woodstock, New York: Global Action Plan for the Earth, 1992).

Total government procurement figure is drawn from U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1994 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1994).

Eco-Labeling
Percentage of consumers that think of environmental impact when shopping is from a poll commissioned by the National Consumers League, conducted by New Jersey-based Bruskin/Goldring Research, and reported in Greenwire in late April 1995. Confusing labels and terms on consumer goods is from testimony of Norman Dean, President, Green Seal, 3 March 1995 Task Force Roundtable. Increased use of terms such as "environmentally friendly" is from study by researchers at the University Utah, Oregon State University, and the University of Illinois, and reported in Greenwire in late April 1995.

Disposable diapers as percentage of total municipal solid waste stream is from Daniel Chiras, Lessons from Nature: Learning to Live Sustainably on the Earth (Washington Press, 1992), p. 202. , D.C.: island

Features of an eco-labeling scheme are drawn from personal communications with David Harwood, Office of the Under-Secretary of State for Global Affairs, U.S. Department of State, May and June 1995, and testimony of Norman Dean, President, Green Seal, 3 March 1995 Task Force roundtable. The Resource Recovery and Conservation Act can be found at 42 U.S.C. 6962.

Government Procurement
Scale of federal purchases is from personal communications with David Harwood, Office of the Under-Secretary of State for Global Affairs, U.S. Department of State, May and June 1995. Figure on federal paper purchases is from John Young and Aaron Sachs, "The Next Efficiency Revolution: Creating a Sustainable Materials Economy," Worldwatch Paper #121 (Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute, 1994), p. 37. All other points in this section are drawn from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Comprehensive Guidelines for Procurement of Products Containing Recovered Materials and Issuance of a Draft Recovered Materials Advisory Notice; Proposed Rule and Notice," Federal Register, 20 April 1994, p. 18851-914.

Public Education
Amount of time the average American spends watching television commercials is from New Road Map Foundation, "All-Consuming Passion: Waking Up from the American Dream" (Seattle, Washington, 1993). Ads seen by the time of graduation from high school is from Alan Durning, How Much Is Enough? The Consumer Society and the Future of the Earth (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1992), p. 128.

Information on FFC standards for advertisers is from personal communications with David Harwood, Office of the Under-Secretary of State for Global Affairs, U.S. Department of State, May and June 1995.

Data on savings, debt, impulse purchases, increase in hours spent working, desires to slow down, willingness to trade wages for more free time from New Road Map Foundation, "All-Consuming Passion: Waking Up from the American Dream" (Seattle, Washington, 1993).

The section on stewardship was greatly improved by the input of James Martin-Schramm of Luther College and a non-PCSD member of the Population and Consumption Task Force. Merck Family Fund poll is from personal communication with Betsy Taylor, Executive Director, Merck Family Fund, 19 June 1995. All other data from Benedicta Musembi and David Anderson, "Religious Communities and Population Concerns," prepared by the Population Reference Bureau, April 1994: on Americans and religion, p. 2; NACRE poll of Christian denominations on stewardship, p. 5; history of U.S. religious organization involvement with environmental issues, p. 3-5; moral concerns of sustainability, solidarity, and sufficiency, pp. 10-17. Point about participation from James Martin-Schramm, Luther College. Poll results about materialism are from personal communication, Daniel Devlin-Foltz, Pew Global Stewardship Initiative, 10 May 1995.

Packaging, Garbage, and Toxics
Environmental consequences of materials use and dimensions of a new materials economy is based on John Young and Aaron Sachs, "The Next Efficiency Revolution: Creating a Sustainable Materials Economy," Worldwatch Paper #121 (Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute, 1994), and Jennifer Seymour Whitaker, Salvaging the Land of Plenty: Garbage and the American Dream (New York: William Morrow and Co., Inc., 1994).

Streamlining Packaging in the United States
Packaging as a percentage of the waste stream, and paper, plastic, and glass as a percentage of the waste stream, is from Jennifer Seymour Whitaker, Salvaging the Land of Plenty: Garbage and the American Dream (New York: William Morrow and Co., Inc., 1994), pp. 103-04. Information on the German program is from Megan Ryan, "Packaging a Revolution," World Watch, September/October 1993, pp. 28-34; Megan Ryan, "Update: Packaging a Revolution," World Watch, July/August 1994, p. 9; and Jennifer Seymour Whitaker, Salvaging the Land of Plenty: Garbage and the American Dream (New York: William Morrow and Co., Inc., 1994), pp. 200-2 and 230. Recent European Union directive is from personal communications with David Harwood, Office of the Under-Secretary of State for Global Affairs, U.S. Department of State, May and June 1995.

Garbage Fees
Growth in volume of municipal solid waste between 1960 and 1988, daily per capita U.S. tras production, potential for recycling and composting, and actual recycling are from Robert Repetto, Roger Dower, Robin Jenkins, and Jacqueline Geoghegan, Green Fees: How a Tax Shift Can Work for the Environment and the Economy (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1992), p. 15. U.S. population in 1960 is from Susan Weber, ed., USA by Numbers: A Statistical Portrait of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Zero Population Growth, 1988), p. 5; 1988 figure is from Population Reference Bureau, World Population Data Sheet 1988.

Definition of municipal solid waste and proportion of all municipal solid waste that is landfill is from Robert Repetto, Roger Dower, Robin Jenkins, and Jacqueline Geoghegan, Green Fees: How a Tax Shift Can Work for the Environment and the Economy (Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1992), pp. 15 and 34. Municipal solid waste as a percentage of the entire waste stream is from Jennifer Seymour Whitaker, Salvaging the Land of Plenty: Garbage an the American Dream, (New York: William Morrow and Co., Inc., 1994), p. 107.

Traditional and innovative financing of municipal garbage collection and World Resources Institute study of scaled garbage collection fees are from Robert Repetto, Roger Dower, Rob Jenkins, and Jacqueline Geoghegan, Green Fees: How a Tax Shift Can Work for the Environment and the Economy.(Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1992),pp. 16-29.

Household Toxics
Average toxic discards and percent of household waste stream it represents; hazardous co of batteries; and amount of motor oil improperly discarded are from personal communication Jennifer Whitaker, Council on Foreign Relations, 25 March 1995. Size of Exxon Valdez oil spill and toxicity of municipal landfills are from Jennifer Seymour Whitaker, Salvaging the Land of Plenty: Garbage and the American Dream(New York: William Morrow and Co., Inc,.1994), pp. 122 and 121, respectively.

Technology for Sustainability
All material in the technology section is drawn from George Heaton, Robert Repetto, and Rodney Sobin, Transforming Technology: An Agenda for Environmentally Sustainable Growth in the 21st Century(Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1991).

CONCLUSIONS